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A Short Account 

of the 

Department of State 

of the 

United States 



Prepared in the 

Division of Publications 

Department of State 




Washington 

Government Printing Office 

1922 






^ 



A Short Account 

of the 

Department of State 

of the 

United States 



Prepared in the 

Division of Publications 

Department of State 




Washington 

Government Printing Office 

1922 







^■>^> 



^^ 



,S' 






LIB«A«Y OF CONQWeSS 

RECEIVED 

OCT 4 \%ft 

DOCUMENTS DIVISION 



c 

< 



FOREWORD. 



Many letters come to the Department of State 
from people who ask what its organization and 
duties are; they have not found information on the 
subject readily accessible to them. Some of the 
inquirers are school-teachers who wish to instruct 
their pupils concerning the machinery of the Gov- 
ernment, and some are people who wish to inform 
themselves. To satisfy this demand for informa- 
tion there has been prepared in the Department the 
short account of its organization and duties which 
follows. It is not intended to be a history of our 
foreign relations, or of the Diplomatic and Consu- 
lar Service, but a description of the central office 
which manages the Diplomatic and Consular Serv- 
ice and is the medium of official intercourse with 
foreign powers. 

The Department of State has expanded as the 
country and its foreign relations have expanded. 
The first Secretary of State was Thomas Jefferson, 
and his entire staff comprised five clerks. There 

(III) 



IV 

were then four foreign Ministers Resident at the 
seat of government, and our own diplomatic corps 
comprised three heads of missions. We had not 
more than sixteen consuls residing in foreign coun- 
tries. At the present time there are forty-four 
heads of foreign missions in Washington and we 
have diplomatic representation in fifty foreign 
countries. There are three hundred and twenty 
principal consular officers of the United States. 
To these must be added a large number of subordi- 
nate diplomatic and consular officers. In the De- 
partment at Washington there are now more than 
seven hundred officers and clerks. 

Nevertheless, the foundation of the Department 
remains the same as that which was laid down in 
the laws passed by the First Congress under the 
Constitution in 1789. Many statutes affecting the 
Department have been enacted since then, but the 
organic acts are still in force, having governed for 
one hundred and thirty-three years. 

It is hoped that the account of the Department 
which is presented here will prove interesting and 
valuable to those citizens who desire to under- 
stand the workings of their Government. 

Charles E. Hughes. 

Department of State, 

July 22, 1922. 



CONTENTS. 



Officers of the Department of State VII 

I. Under the Continental Congress 1 

II. A Department of State 11 

III. Duties which have passed 1 16 

IV. Some Domestic Duties 21 

- V. Some Foreign Duties. 27 

VL The Subdivisions 37 

VII. The Department's Homes 45 

VIII. In War__ 50 

IX. In Peace 57 

X. The Department and the Peopled 62 

Index 67 

(V) 



OFFICERS OF 
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 

1922. 



Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes. 

Under Secretary of State William Phillips. 

Assistant Secretary of State Leland Harrison. 

Second Assistant Secretary of State Alvey A. Adee 

Third Assistant Secretary of State Robert Woods Bliss. 

Director of the Consular Service Wilbur J. Carr. 

Solicitor Fred K. Nielsen 

Chief Clerk Ben G. Davis. 

Chief of the Division of 

Far Eastern Affairs John Van A. MacMurray. 

Chief of the Division of 

Latin American Affairs Francis White (Acting). 

Chief of the Division of 

Western European Affairs William R. Castle, Jr. 

Chief of the Division of 

Near Eastern Affairs Allen W. Dulles. 

Chief of the Division of 

Mexican Affairs Matthew E. Hanna. 

Chief of the Division of 

Russian Affairs De Witt C. Poole. 

Economic Adviser 

(▼") 



VIII 

Chief of the Division of 

Passport Control Philip Adams. 

Chief of Visa Office J. Preston Doughton. 

Chief of the Division of Publications 

and Editor of the Department of State. -Gaillaio) Hunt. 

Chief of the Division of Political 

and Economic Information Prentiss B. Gilbert. 

Chief of the Division of 

Current Information Edward Bell (Acting). 

Chief of the Diplomatic 

Bureau Worthington E. Stewart, (Acting). 

Chief of the Consular Bureau Herbert G. Hengstler. 

Chief of the Bureau of Appointments Miles M. Shand. 

Chief of the Bureau of 

Indexes and Archives David A. Salmon. 

Chief of the Bureau of Accounts 

and Disbursing Officer William McNeir. 

SECRETARIES OF STATE (1789-1922). 

Presidents. Secretaries of State. Date of commission. 

George Washington. . . Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia September 26, 1789. 

Entered upon duties March 22, 1790. 
Retired December 31, 1793. 

Do Edmund Randolph, of Virginia January 2, 1794. 

Entered upon duties January 2, 1794. 
Retired August 19, 1795. 

Do Timothy Pickering, of Pennsylvania 

(Secretary of War) . 
Ad interim August 20, 1795, to Decem- 
ber 9, 1795. 
■p. rTimothy Pickering, of Pennsylvania.... December 10, 1795' 

John Adams'. .'.'.' '...'..] filtered upon duties December 10, 1795, 
' " I Retired May 12, 1800. 

Do Charles Lee, of Virginia (Attorney Gen- 
eral). 
Ad interim May 13, 1800, to June 5, 1800. 



IX 

John Adams John Marshall, of Virginia May 13, 1800. 

Entered upon duties June 6, 1800. 
Retired February 4, 1801. 

Do John Marshall, of Virginia (Chief Justice 

of the United States) . 
Ad interim February 4, 1801, to March 
4, 1801. 

Thomas Jefferson Levi Lincoln, of Massachusetts (Attorney 

General) . 
Ad interim March 4, 1801, to May i, 
1801. 

Do James Madison, of Virginia March 5, 1801. 

Entered upon duties May 2, 1801. Re- 
tired March 3, 1809. 

James Madison Robert Smith, of Maryland March 6, 1809. 

Entered upon duties March 6, 1809. 
Retired April i, 181 1. 

Do James Monroe, of Virginia April 2, 1811. 

Entered upon duties' April 6, 1811. 
Retired September 30, 1814. 

Do James Monroe, of Virginia (Secretary of 

War). 
Ad interim October i, 1814, to Feb- 
ruary 28, 1815. 

Do James Monroe, of Virginia February 28, 1815. 

Entered upon duties March i, 1815. 
Retired March 3, 1817. 

James Monroe John Graham (Chief Clerk) . 

Ad interim March 4, 1817, to'March'g, 
1817. 
Do Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania (Attor- 
ney General) . 
Ad interim March 10, 181 7, to Septem- 
ber 22, 1817. 

Do John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts . . March s, 1817. 

Entered upon duties September 22, 
1817. Retired March 3, 1825. 
John Quincy Adams.. Daniel Brent (Chief Clerk). 

Ad interim March 4, 1825, to March 8, 
1825. 

Do Henry Clay, of Kentucky March 7, 1825. 

Entered upon duties March 9, 1825. 
Retired March 3, 1829. 



Andrew Jackson James A. Hamilton, of New York March 4, 1829. 

Ad interim March 4, 1829, to March 27, 
1829. 

Do Martin Van Buren, of New York March 6, 1829. 

Entered upon duties March 28, 1829. 
Retired May 23, 1831. 

Do Edward Livingston, of Louisiana May 24, 1831. 

Entered upon duties May 24, 1831. 
Retired May 29, 1833. 

Do Louis McLane, of Delaware May 29, 1833. 

Entered upon duties May 29, 1833. 
Retired June 30, 1834. 

■J-, rjohn Forsyth, of Georgia June 27, 1834. 

Martin Van Buren. '.J Entered upon duties July i, 1834. 
I Retired March 3, 1841. 

William H. Harrison. J. L. Martin (chief clerk). 

Ad interim March 4, 1 841, to March 5, 

1841. 

[Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts March 5, 1841. 

. , ^' '. \ Entered upon duties March 6, 1841. 

John Tyler „ . , ^ , 

^ Retired May 8, 1843. 

Do Hugh S. Legare, of South Carolina (At- 
torney General). 
Ad interim May 9, 1843, to June 20, 1843. 
Died June 20, 1843. 

Do William S. Derrick (chief clerk). 

Ad interim June 21, 1843, to June 23, 
1843. 

Do Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia (Secretary 

of the Navy). 
Ad interim June 24, 1843, to July 23, 
1843. 

Do Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia July 24, 1843. 

Entered upon duties July 24, 1843. 
Died February 28, 1844. 

Do John Nelson, of Maryland (Attorney 

General). 
Ad interim February 29, 1844, to March 
31. 1844- 

Do John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina March 6, 1844. 

Entered upon duties April i , 1844. Re- 
tired March 10, 1845. 



XI 

James K. Polk James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania March 6, 1845. 

Entered upon duties March 10, 1845. 
Retired March 7, 1849. ' 

Zachary Taylor 1^°^ ^^- Dayton, of Delaware March 7, 1849. 

Millard Fillmore ^''^^'^'^ "P°" "^"^^^^ ^^^'^^ «• ^«49. 

l Retired July 22, 1850. 

Do Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts July 22, 1850. 

Entered upon duties July 23, 1850. 
Died October 24, 1852. 
Do Charles M. Conrad, of Louisiana (Secre- 
tary of War). 
Ad interim October 25, 1832, to No- 
vember 5, 1852. 

Do Edward Everett, of Massachusetts November 6, 1852. 

Entered upon duties November 6, 1852. 
Retired March 3, 1853. 

Franklin Pierce William Hunter, jr. (chief clerk). 

Ad interim March 4, 1853, to March 7, 
1853. 

Do William L. Marcy, of New York March 7, 1853. 

Entered upon duties March 8, 1853. 
Retired March 6, 1857. 

James Buchanan Lewis Cass, of Michigan March 6, 1857. 

Entered upon duties March 6, 1857. 
Retired December 14, i860. 

Do William Hunter, jr. (chief clerk). 

Ad interim December 15, i860, to De- 
cember 16, i860. 

Do Jeremiah S. Black, of Pennsylvania December 17, i8fio. 

Entered upon duties December 17, 

i860. Retired March 5, 1861. 

,. , (William H. Seward, of New York March 5, 1861. 

Abraham Lmclon ... . ^ ^ , j *■ ^r v, <; o^ 

, , ■! Entered upon duties March 6, 1861. 

Andrew Johnson -r, ^- j -a^ u oa 

'^ Retired March 4, 1869. 

Ulysses S. Grant Elihu B. Washbume, of Illinois March 5, 1869. 

Entered upon duties March 5, 1869. 

Retired March 16, 1869. 

Do Hamilton Fish, of New York March 11, 1869. 

Entered upon duties March 17, 1869. 

Recommissioned March 17, 187 <. 

Retired March 12, 1877. 

Rutherford B. Hayes. William M. Evart.s, of New York March 12, J877. 

Entered upon duties March 12, 1877. 

Retired March 7, 1881. 



XII 

_ - , , f James G. Blaine, of Maine March s, i88r. 

James A. Garfield....! ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^.^ ^^^^^ ^_ ^gg^_ 

Chester A. Arthur ....\ ^^^.^^^ December 19. 1881. 

Do Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, of New 

Jersey December 12, tSSi. 

Entered upon duties December 19, 
1881. Retired March 6, 1885. 

Grover Cleveland Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware March 6, 1885. 

Entered upon duties March 7, 1885. 
Retired March 6, 1889. 

Benjamin Harrison . . . James G. Blaine, of Maine March 5, 1889. 

Entered upon duties March 7, 1889. 
Retired June 4, 1892. 

Do "William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts 

(Assistant Secretary) . 
Ad interim June 4, 1892, to June 29, 
1892. 

Do John "W. Foster, of Indiana June 29, 1892. 

Entered upon duties June 29, 1892. 
Retired February 23, 1893. 

Do William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts 

(Assistant Secretary) . 
Ad interim February 24, 1893, to March 
6, 1893. 

Grover Cleveland Walter Q. Gresham, of Illinois March 6, 1893. 

Entered upon duties March 7, 1893. 
Died May 28, 1895. 

Do Edwin F. Uhl, of Michigan (Assistant 

Secretary). 
Ad interim May 28, 1895, to June 9, 
1895. 

Do Richard Olney, of Massachusetts June 8, 1895. 

Entered upon duties June 10, 1895. 
Retired March 5, 1897. 

William McKinley. . . . John Sherman, of Ohio March s, 1897. 

Entered upon duties March 6, 1897. 
Retired April 27, 1898. 

Do William R. Day, of Ohio April 26, 1898. 

Entered upon duties April 28, 1898. 
Retired September 16, 1898. 
Do Alvey A. Adee, of the District of Co- 
lumbia (Second Assistant Secretary). 
Ad interim September 17, 1898, to 
September 29, 1898. 



XIII 

William McKinley ..K , ^^ , , „. 

Theodore Roosevelt, .r '^' District of Columbia. . September 20, i8s 

Entered upon duties September 30, 
1898. 

Recommissioned March 5, 1901. 

Recommissioned March 5, 1905. 

Died July i, 1905. 

Do Francis B. Loomis, of Ohio (Assistant 

Secretary). 
Ad interim July i, 1905, to July 18, 1905. 

Do Elihu Root, of New York July 7, 1905. 

Entered upon duties July 19, 1905. 
Retired January 27, 1909. 

Do Robert Bacon, of New York January 27, 1909. 

Entered upon duties January 27, 1909. 
Retired March 5, 1909. 

William H. Taft Philander C. Knox, of Pennsylvania. . . March s, 1909. 

Entered upon duties March 6, 1909. 
Retired March 5, 1913. 

Woodrow Wilson William Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska. . March 5, 1913. 

Entered upon duties March s. i9i3- 
Retired June 9, 1915. 
Do Robert Lansing, of New York (Coun- 
selor for the Department of State). 
Ad interim June 9, 1915, to June 23, 
• 191S. 

Do Robert Lansing, of New York June 23, 1915. 

Entered upon duties June 24, 1915. 
Retired February 13, 1920. 

Do Frank Lyon Polk, of New York (Under 

Secretary). 
Acting February 14, 1920, to March 
13, 1920. 

Do Bainbridge Colby, of New York March 22,'i920. 

Entered upon duties March 23, 1920. 
Retired March 4, 1921. 
Warren G. Harding. . . Charles Evans Hughes, of New York. . . March 4, 1921. 
Entered upon duties March s, 1921. 

COUNSELORS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 
(1909-1919). 

Henry M. Hoyt, of Pennsylvania August 21, 1909. 

Entered upon duties August 27, 1909. Died November 20, 
1910. 



XIV 

Chandlpr P. Anderson, of New York December r6. rt,to. 

Entered upon duties December i6, 1910. Retired April 22, 
1913- 
John Bassett Moore, of New York April 21, 1913. 

Entered upon duties April 23, 1913. Retired March 4, 1914. 
Robert Lansing, of New York March 27, 1914. 

Entered upon duties April i, 1914- Retired June 23, 1915. 
Frank Lyon Polk, of New York August 30, 191 5. 

Entered upon duties September 16, 1915. Retired June 30, 
1919. 

UNDERSECRETARIES OF STATE (1919-1922). 

Date of commission. 
Frank Lyon Polk, of New York June 26, 1919. 

Entered upon duties July i, 1919- Retired June 15, 1920. 
Norman H. Davis, of New York June ii, 1920. 

Entered uix)n duties June 15, 1920. Retired March 7, 1921. 
Henry P. Fletcher, of Pennsylvania March 7, 1921. 

Entered upon duties March 8, 1921. Retired March 6, 1922. 
William Phillips, of Massachusetts March 31, 1922, 

Entered upon duties May 26, 1922. 

ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE (185S-1922). 

Date of comtnission. 
Ambrose Dudley Mann, of Ohio March 23, 1853. 

Retired May 8, 1855. 
William Hunter, jr., of Rhode Island (Chief Clerk) May 8, 1855. 

Ad interim May 9, 1855, to October 31, 1855. 
John A. Thomas, of New York November i, 1853. 

Entered upon duties November i, 1855. Retired April 3, 1857. 
John Appleton, of Maine April 4, 1857. 

Entered upon duties April 4, 1857. Retired June 10, i860. 
William H. Trescot, of South Carolina June 8, i860. 

Entered upon duties June 11, i860. Retired December 20, i860. 
William Hunter (Chief Clerk) March i, 1861. 

Ad interim March i, 1861, to March 5, 1861. 
Frederick W. Seward, of New York March 6, 1861. 

Entered upon duties March 6, 1861. Retired March 4, 1869. 
J. C. Bancroft Davis, of New York March 25, 1869. 

Entered upon duties April i, 1869. Retired November 13, 1871. 
Charles Hale, of Massachusetts February 19, 187a. 

Entered upon duties February 19, 1872. Retired January 24, 
>873. 



XV 

J. C. Bancroft Davis, of N^ew York January 24, 1873. 

Entered upon duties January 25, 1873. Retired June 30, 1874. 
John L. Cadwalader, of New York June 17, 1874. 

Entered upon duties July i, 1874. Retired March 20, 1877. 
Frederick W. Seward, of New York Harch 16, 1877. 

Entered upon duties March 21, 1877. Retired October 31, 1879. 
John Hay, of Ohio November i, 1879. 

Entered upon duties November i, 1879. Retired May 3, 1881. 
Robert R. Hitt, of Illinois May 4, 1881. 

Entered upon duties May 4, 1881. Retired December 19, 1881. 
J. C. Bancroft Davis, of New York December 19, i88i . 

Entered upon duties December 20, 1881. Retired July 7, 1882. 
John Davis, of the District of Columbia July 7, 1882 . 

Entered upon duties July 8, 1882. Retired February 23, 1885. 
James D. Porter, of Termessee March 20, 1885. 

Entered upon duties March 21, 1885. Retired September 10, 
1887. 
George L. Rives, of New York November 19, 1887. 

Entered upon duties November 21, 1887. Retired March 5, 
1889. 

William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts April 2, 1889. 

Entered upon duties April 11, 1889. Retired March 20, 1893. 

Josiah Quincy, of Massachusetts JIarch 20, 1893. 

Entered upon duties March 21, 1893. Retired September 22, 
1893. 

Edwin F. Uhl, of Michigan November i, 1893. 

Entered»upon duties November 11, 1893. Retired February 
II, 1896. 

William Woodville Rockhill, of Maryland February 11, 1896. 

Entered upon duties February 14, 1898. Retired May 10, 1897. 

William R. Day, of Ohio May 3, 1897. 

Entered upon duties May 11, 1897. Retired April 27, 1898. 

John B. Moore, of New York April 27, 1898. 

Entered upon duties April 28, 1898. Retired September 16, 
1898. 

David J. Hill, of New York October 25, 1898. 

Entered upon duties October 25, 1898. Retired January 28, 
1903. 

Francis B. Loomis, of Ohio January 7, 1903. 

Entered upon duties February 9, 1903. Retired October to, 
190S. 



XVI 

Robert Bacon, of New York September s, 1905. 

Entered upon duties October 11, 1905. Retired January 27, 
1909. 
John Callan O'Laughlin, of the District of Columbia January 27, 1909. 

Entered upon duties January 28, 1909. Retired March s, 1909. 
Huntington Wilson, of Illinois March s, 1909. 

Entered upon duties March 6, 1909. Retired March 19, 1913. 
John E. Osborne, of Wyoming April 21, 1913. 

Entered upon duties April 21, 1913. Retired December 14, 
1916. 
William Phillips, of Massachusetts January 24, 1917. 

Entered upon duties January 25, 1917. Retired March 25, 1920. 
Fred Morris Dearing, of Missouri March 11, 1921. 

Entered upon duties March 15, 1921. Retired February 28, 
1922. 
Leland Harrison, of Illinois March 31, 1922. 

Entered upon duties April 4, 1922. 

SECOND ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE 
(1866-1922). 

Date of coTnmission. 
William Hunter, of Rhode Island July 27, 1866. 

Entered upon duties July 27, 1866. Died July 22, 1886. 
Alvey A. Adee, of the District of Columbia August 3, 1886. 

Entered upon duties August 6, 1886. 

THIRD ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE 
(1875-1922). 

Date of commission. 
John A. Campbell, of Wyoming February 24, 1875. 

Entered upon duties February 24, 1875. Retired November 
30, 1877. 
Charles Payson, of New York June 11, 1878. 

Entered upon duties June 22, 1878. Retired June 30, 1881. 
Walker Blaine, of Maine July i, 1881. 

Entered upon duties July i, 1881. Retired June 30, 1882. 
Alvey A. Adee, of the District of Columbia July 18, 1882. 

Entered upon duties July 18, 1882. Retired August s, 1886. 
John B. Moore, of Delaware August 3, 1886. 

Entered upon duties August 6, 1886. Retired September 30, 
1891. 
William M. Grinnell, of New York February 11, 1892 . 

Entered upon duties February 15, 1892. Retired April 16, 1893. 



XVII 

Edward H. Strobel, of New York April 13, 1893. 

Entered upon duties April 17, 1893. Retired April 16, 1894. 
William Woodville Rockhill, of Maryland April 14, 1894. 

Entered upon duties April 17, 1894. Retired February 13, 
1896. 

William Woodward Baldwin, of New York February 24, 1896. 

Entered upon duties February 29, 1896. Retired April i, 1897. 
Thomas Wilbur Cridler, of West Virginia April 8, 1897. 

Entered upon duties April 8, 1897. Retired November 15, 1901. 
Herbert H. D. Peirce, of JIassachusetts November 15 ,1901. 

Entered upon duties November 16, 1901. Retired June 22, 
1906. 
Huntington Wilson, of Illinois June 22, 1906. 

Entered upon duties July 2, 1906. Retired December 30, 1908. 
William Phillips, of Massachusetts January 11, 1909. 

Entered upon duties January 11, 1909. Retired October 13, 
1909. 

Chandler Hale, of Maine September 25, 1909. 

Entered upon duties October 14, 1909. Retired April 21, 1913. 
Dudley Field Malone, of New York April 21, 1913. 

Entered upon duties April 22, 1913. Retired November 22, 
1913- 
William Phillips, of Massachusetts March 13, 1914. 

Entered upon duties March 17, 1914. Retired January 24, 191 7. 
Breckinridge Long, of Missouri January 24, 1917. 

Entered upon duties January 29, 1917. Retired June 8, 1920. 
Van Santvoord Merle-Smith, of New York June 21, 1920. 

Entered upon duties June 24, 1920. Retired March 4, 1921. 
Robert Woods Bliss, of New York March 15, 1921. 

Entered upon duties March 16, 1921. 

4986 — 22 2 



CHAPTER I. 

UNDER THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 



When the Continental Congress assembled in 
Carpenters' Hall at Philadelphia, September 5, 1774, 
thoughts of independence from Great Britain were 
in the minds of many of the delegates, but were 
openly expressed by few. So a loyal address to 
the King of England was adopted, asking him to 
recall the unjust measures which were oppressing 
his subjects in America. Several of the Colonies 
had agents in England to attend to their affairs, 
and the address was sent to them to present to the 
King- They were called " Friends to American 
liberty." These agents were Paul Wentworth, 
Charles Garth, William Bollan, Thomas Life, Ed- 
mund Burke, Arthur Lee, and Benjamin Franklin. 
They were instructed to act for the " United Colo- 
nies," but Bollan, Lee, and Franklin were the only 
three who did so. They were the representatives 
of a power destined soon afterwards to declare its 
independence, and their duties were to a certain 
extent diplomatic. 

(1) 



When the Congress met the next year it was 
known that the efforts of the American agents in 
London had failed, and that the Colonies had to 
choose between submission to the King or rebellion 
against his authority. An important means by 
which the rebellion might be successfully prose- 
cuted was provided in the " Committee of Secret 
Correspondence," selected November 29, 1775, with 
Benjamin Franklin as its chairman and guiding 
spirit, and Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia; John 
Dickinson, of Pennsylvania; Thomas Johnson, of 
Maryland; and John Jay, of New York, as its mem- 
bers. This was really a committee of foreign af- 
fairs. It opened correspondence with Arthur Lee, 
among others, instructing him to communicate with 
the French minister of foreign affairs, Count Ver- 
gennes, and ask French aid for the Colonies. This 
was the beginning of the negotiations, which re- 
sulted three years later in the alliance, offensive 
and defensive, with France. 

But after its first action the Committee of Secret 
Correspondence ceased to be of importance. Con- 
gress preferring to manage the foreign affairs of 
the country by itself, and on April 17, 1777, the title 
of the committee was changed, and it became the 
" Committee for Foreign Affairs." The first mem- 
bers were Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia; Bobert 



3 

Morris, of Pennsylvania; Thomas Hayward, jr., of 
North Carolina; and James Lovell, of Massachu- 
setts, but the personnel of the committee under- 
went constant change. The first secretary of the 
committee was Thomas Paine, who received a sal- 
ary of $70 a month. He was dismissed in January, 
1779, because he made an official .matter public. 
The chief function of the committee was to furnish 
the agents of the Government abroad with ac- 
counts of the progress of events in America. Be- 
yond that it simply executed the orders of Con- 
gress and had little real power over our foreign 
affairs. The only member who remained continu- 
ously on the committee was Lovell. He was a 
Boston school-teacher; was imprisoned by the 
British after the Battle of Bunker Hill; was ex- 
changed later and elected a Member of Congress 
in December, 1776, serving till 1782. He is repre- 
sented as having been a man of learning and 
ability, but of such eccentricities of manner and 
temper as to lead at times to doubts of his sanity. 

The committee became so unimportant a body 
that after a time it almost ceased to exist. " There 
is really," wrote Lovell to Arthur Lee, August 6, 
1779, " no such thing as a Committee of Foreign 
Affairs existing — no secretary or clerk further 
than I persevere to be one and the other. The 



books and the papers of that extinguished body 
lay yet on the table of Congress, or rather are 
locked up in the secretary's private box." 

The necessity for some channel through which to 
conduct foreign affairs resulted finally in " a plan 
for the Department of Foreign Affairs," reported to 
Congress in January, 1781. The opening para- 
graph of the plan stated : 

That the extent and rising power of these United States 
entitles them to a place among the great potentates of 
Europe, while our political and commercial interests 
point out the propriety of cultivating with them a friendly 
correspondence and connection. 

It w^as not until August 10 that the department 
was organized, and Robert R. Livingston, of New 
York, was elected the secretary. He had been a 
member of the old committee for a short time in 
1779. He continued to act as Secretary for Foreign 
Affairs until June 4, 1783. Dr. Francis Wharton 
estimates his character and services in the Diplo- 
matic Correspondence of the American Revolution. 
" Livingston," he says, " though a much younger 
man than Franklin, possessed, in his dispassion- 
ateness and his many-sidedness, not a few of 
Franklin's characteristics. From his prior admin- 
istrative experience as royalist recorder of New 
York he had at least some acquaintance with prac- 



tical government in America; his thorough studies 
as scholar and jurist gave him a knowledge of ad- 
ministrative politics in other spheres. * * * 
He did more than anyone in the home government 
in shaping its foreign policy." 

Although Livingston's department was under 
constant instructions from Congress and was per- 
mitted to take no independent action, its duties 
were, nevertheless, highly important, as it was the 
medium for all correspondence with our agents 
abroad. The method of correspondence was peril- 
ous and laborious. At least four and sometimes 
seven copies of every letter were sent, to lessen the 
chances of loss from capture, and on each packet 
was written the warning, " To be sunk in case of 
danger from the enemy." Ciphers were freely 
used and some of the letters were in invisible ink. 
Nevertheless, a large portion of the correspondence 
went to the British foreign office, where the ciphers 
were probably understood. 

Previous to his departure from Congress Living- 
ston submitted a report, showing all the officers 
serving under him and their salaries. The " Secre- 
tary to the United States for Foreign Affairs " re- 
ceived $4,000 per annum. Benjamin Franklin, 
" Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States at 
the Court of Versailles, and Minister Plenipotenti- 





ary for negotiating a peace"; John Adams, "Min- 
ister Plenipotentiary at tlie Hague and for negoti- 
ating a peace"; John Jay, "Minister Plenipoten- 
tiary at Madrid and for negotiating a peace"; 
Henry Laurens, "Minister Plenipotentiary for 
negotiating a peace"; and Thomas Jetferson, with 
the same rank, each received a salary of $11,111 
per annum. William Carmichael, " Secretary to 
the Embassy at the Court of Madrid," and Francis 
Dana, Minister at St. Petersburg, each received 
$4,444.40 per annum. Charles W. F. Dumas, 
" Agent of the United States at the Hague," re- 
ceived $920; William Temple Franklin, " Secretary 
to the Hon. Benjamin Franklin," $1,300; Lewis R. 
Morris, " First Under Secretary in the OfTice of 
Foreign Affairs," $800; Peter L. Du Ponceau, " Sec- 
ond Under Secretary in the Ofhce of Foreign 
Affairs," $700; John P. Tetend, " Clerk and Inter- 
preter of the French Language," $500; Walter 
Stone, " Clerk," $500. The total cost of the entire 
service at home and abroad was $73,244. 

When Livingston gave up his office June 4, 1783, 
he left the business of the Department in the hands 
of the undersecretary, Lewis R. Morris; but Morris 
was without authority to act, and severed his con- 
nection with the Department soon afterwards, his 
place being taken by Henry Remsen, jr. As a 



matter of fact, however, the Department of Foreign 
Affairs practically ceased to exist, and Congress 
managed the foreign relations of the country di- 
rectly, committees being appointed as occasion 
arose to consider specific questions, x 

John Jay, of New York, was one of the commis- 
sioners who, in 1783, negotiated at Paris the defini- 
tive treaty of peace with Great Britain. He sailed 
for home in the summer of 1784, and before his 
arrival was elected Secretary of Foreign Affairs on 
motion of Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts. He 
took the oath of office and entered on his duties 
September 21, 1784, and the functions of the De- 
partment were revived, but they were ill defined 
and limited, and the Secretary was constantly 
complaining of the unsatisfactory nature of his 
authority. 

On August 14, 1788, a committee of Congress 
reported upon the condition in which the Depart- 
ment then was. It occupied two rooms, one the 
Secretary's, the other that of his deputy and clerks. 
The daily transactions were entered in a minute 
book and subsequently copied into a journal. The 
letters to ministers and others abroad were entered 
in a book called the " Book of Foreign Letters," 
such parts as required secrecy being in cipher. 
The domestic correspondence was entered in the 



"American Letter Book." The " Book of Reports " 
contained the Secretary's reports to Congress. 
There was also a book in which were recorded the 
passports issued to vessels, and one of "Foreign 
Commissions," besides a " Book of Accounts," and 
one containing acts of Congress relative to the de- 
partment. The papers of the old Committee of 
Foreign Affairs and all the correspondence of our 
ministers abroad were properly cared for. The 
office was open for business from 9 o'clock in the 
morning till 6 at night, and either the deputy or a 
clerk remained in the office while the others were 
at dinner. The committee concluded their report 
by saying: "And upon the whole they find neat- 
ness, method, and perspicacity throughout the 
Department." 

On September 16, 1788, was taken the last act 
relative to foreign affairs by the expiring Congress, 
when it — 

Resolved, That no further progress be made in the nego- 
tiations with Spain by the Secretary for Foreign Affairs, 
but that the subject to which they relate be referred to 
the Federal Government which is to assemble in March 
next. 

One month later the Congress was dead, not a 
sufficient number of Members attending to form a 
quorum. 



The only two Secretaries of Foreign Affairs be- 
fore the Constitution went into effect were Living- 
ston and Jay. Both showed conspicuous ability, 
and it is doubtful if men better equipped for the 
otTice they held could have been found in America. 
The diplomacy of the Revolution was, on the 
whole, splendidly successful, but this was due 
chiefly to the energy and genius of the American 
diplomatists, for the machinery which they were 
obliged to use was weak and inadequate for its 
purpose. In no branch of governmental affairs 
was the necessity for a stronger government and 
closer union of the States more crying than in our 
foreign relations, and this was more evident after 
the peace than it was while the States clung to- 
gether in the common danger of war. " When our 
ministers and agents in Europe," says John Fiske, 
" raised the question as to making commercial 
treaties, they were disdainfully asked whether 
European powers were expected to deal with thir- 
teen governments or with one. If it was answered 
that the United States constituted a single govern- 
ment so far as their relations with foreign powers 
were concerned, then we were forthwith twitted 
with our failure to keep our engagements with 
England with regard to the loyalists and the collec- 
tion of private debts. ' Yes, we see,' said the Euro- 



10 

pean diplomats; ' the United States are one nation 
to-day and tliirteen to-morrow, according as may 
seem to subserve their selfish interests.' Jefferson, 
at Paris, was told again and again that it was use- 
less for the French Government to enter into any 
agreement with the United States, as there was no 
certainty that it would be fulfilled on our part, and 
the same things were said all over Europe." 



CHAPTER II. 

A DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 



The new Government under the Constitution 
assembled in New York early in April, 1789. After 
Washington had been elected President and John 
Adams Vice President, the business of providing 
executive departments was taken up, and the first 
one considered was a department for foreign af- 
fairs. The bill introduced in the House of Repre- 
sentatives June 2 provided for such a department, 
completely separated from the conduct of domestic 
affairs. 

It passed the House June 27 by a vote of 29 to 22. 
A few unimportant amendments, to which the 
House subsequently agreed, were made in the Sen- 
ate, and the bill became a law July 27, 1789. The 
title was "An act for establishing an executive de- 
partment, to be denominated the Department of 
Foreign Affairs." It comprised four sections. The 
first defined the duties of the Department to be 

(11) 



12 

correspondence with and instructions to diplo- 
matic and consular agents abroad and negotiations 
with the agents of foreign nations in the United 
States, " or to such other matters respecting foreign 
affairs as the President of the United States shall 
assign to the said Department." The second sec- 
tion provided for the appointment by the Secre- 
tary of a chief clerk, who should have charge of 
the records, books, and papers of the Department 
during a vacancy in the office of the Secretary, by 
removal by the President or other cause. The 
third section required that each person employed 
in the Department should take an oath or affirma- 
tion " well and faithfully to execute the trust com- 
mitted to him." The fourth section provided that 
the Secretary should have custody of all the papers 
which had been in the old office of foreign affairs. 
John Jay, being in charge of the old Department 
of Foreign Affairs, was continued, without a new 
appointment, temporarily in charge of the new 
Department, but this Department was destined to 
enjoy but a brief existence. Before the final pas- 
sage of the act creating it, Vining, of Delaware, 
proposed in the House the establishment of a home 
department, to have the custody of the great seal, 
correspond with the several States, report to the 



13 

President " plans for the protection and improve- 
ment of manufactures, agriculture, and commerce," 
issue patents, etc.; but this proposition met with 
little favor, and on July 31, four days after the bill 
establishing the Department of Foreign Affairs had 
been signed, Theodore Sedgwick, of Connecticut, 
introduced a bill " to provide for the safe-keeping 
of the acts, records, and great seal of the United 
States; for the publication, preservation, and au- 
thentication of the acts of Congress," etc. The 
House passed it August 27; it was concurred in 
with a few verbal amendments by the Senate Sep- 
tember 7, agreed to by the House the next day, and 
signed by the President September 15. 

The first section of this act provides that the 
" Executive Department, denominated the Depart- 
ment of Foreign Affairs, shall hereafter be denomi- 
nated the Department of State, and the principal 
officer shall hereafter be called the Secretary of 
State." The Secretary was required to receive and 
publish the laws of the United States; to be the 
custodian of the seal of the United States; to au- 
thenticate copies of records and papers, and to 
receive all the records and papers in the office of 
the late Secretary of Congress, except such as re- 
lated to the Treasury and War Departments. 



14 

The scope of the Department was thus materially 
enlarged, and it became the most important of the 
Government offices under the President. The gov- 
ernors of the States had been informed by the 
President July 5 of the creation of the Department 
of Foreign Affairs. They were informed Septem- 
ber 21 of its expansion into the Department of 
State. A few days later Jay was nominated to be 
Chief Justice of the United States and Thomas 
Jefferson to be Secretary of State, both being com- 
missioned September 26. Jefferson was still on 
his mission to France, and on October 13 Washing- 
ton wrote to him informing hiin of his appoint- 
ment, and added that " Mr. Jay had been so oblig- 
ing as to continue his good offices." Jefferson ar- 
rived in this country in December, and Jay wrote 
to him under date of December 12, congratulating 
him on his appointment, and favorably recom- 
mending to him " the young gentlemen in the 
office." The final acceptance of office by Jefferson 
was not made until February 14, 1790, when he 
wrote to Washington from Monticello, saying that 
he would shortly set out for New York to assume 
his new duties. Upon his arrival in New York the 
Department was formally turned over to him and 



16 

fairly started upon its career. The first Secretary 
of State had enjoyed important diplomatic experi- 
ence as minister to France; he had had executive 
experience as Governor of Virginia during the 
Revolution; he had gained legislative experience 
in 1776 v^hen he sat in Congress and wrote the 
Declaration of Independence. 

4986—22 3 



CHAPTER III. 

DUTIES WHICH HAVE PASSED. 



When the Department of State was started, the 
compensation of the Secretary was fixed by law 
at $3,500 per annum; that of the chief clerk at $800; 
that of the other clerks at not more than $500. 
Roger Alden, the chief clerk, had been deputy 
secretary, under Charles Thomson, to the old Con- 
gress. Henry Remsen, jr., who had had charge of 
the business pertaining to foreign affairs, was con- 
tinued in that capacity by Jefferson, who had two 
chief clerks, but the ranking clerk appears to have 
been Alden. 

From the very beginning the Department of 
State was more closely connected with the Presi- 
dent than any other executive department. In 
the Secretary of State were combined the two 
offices usually separated in other Governments of 
chancellor or keeper of the great seal and min- 
ister of foreign relations. Washington not only 

(16) 



17 

referred to the State Department all official letters 
bearing upon its business, but made it the reposi- 
tory^ of the drafts of many other letters. The 
volume of business of the Government rendered 
it possible for the President to attend personally 
to matters which are now rarely, if ever, brought 
before him. It was Jefferson's custom to consult 
his chief frequently. He sent him the rough draft 
of his letters for approval or correction, and car- 
ried to him all communications of consequence. 
The foreign ministers to the United States were not 
permitted to correspond directly with the Presi- 
dent, but were required to address the Secretary 
of State. This rule had been laid down before 
Jefferson's appointment, when Washington de- 
clined direct correspondence with Moustier, the 
French minister. 

The Department was also the medium of corre- 
spondence between the President and the governors 
of the several States. 

A number of the duties which fell to the Depart- 
ment soon after its organization have since passed 
out of its jurisdiction. Under the law of April 10, 
1790, it had charge of the patent business. The 
patents were granted by a board composed of the 
Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, and the 
Attorney General; and the patent issued to Samuel 



18 

Hopkins July 31, 1790, which was the first one 
granted, was signed by the President, Jefferson, and 
Edmund Randolph, the Attorney General. Three 
patents were issued that year. In 1793 another act 
relative to patents was passed, abolishing the board 
and placing the Secretary of State alone at the head 
of the Patent Office. In 1810 the Patent Office was 
given quarters apart from the rest of the Depart- 
ment of State, but it still remained under that 
Department. In 1849, when the Department of the 
Interior was formed, the Patent Office became a 
part of it, but it had been practically independent 
of the Department of State for some years. 

A law passed May 31, 1790, made the Department 
of State the repository for maps, charts, and books 
for which copyright might be granted by the United 
States district courts. It does not appear that the 
Secretary of State ever had the power of granting 
copyrights. In 1859 all of the records, books, etc., 
were by law turned over to the Department of the 
Interior, from which they passed later to the 
Library of Congress, where the business is now 
conducted. 

Another of the earlier functions of the Depart- 
ment was the superintendence of the census enu- 
meration. The first one was taken in 1790 by the 



19 

United States marshals, beginning on the first Mon- 
day in August and closing within nine months. 
The returns were filed with the clerks of the Fed- 
eral district courts, and the aggregate results sent 
to the President, who transmitted them to Con- 
gress; then they were printed under the super- 
vision of the Secretary of State. In taking the 
census of 1800 the returns were, under the law, 
sent direct to the Secretary of State, and the in- 
structions for the marshals were prepared by him. 
In 1850 the business was transferred by the act of 
May 23 to the Department of the Interior; thence 
in 1903 to the Department of Commerce and Labor 
and later to the Department of Commerce. 

The affairs of the Territories were under the 
Department of State until the organization of the 
Department of the Interior. When the Constitu- 
tion was formed the Territory northwest of the 
Ohio was the only one. The government, which 
had been organized under the Articles of Confeder- 
ation, was continued by the act of August 7, 1789. 
The communications from the governor intended 
for Congress were transmitted through the Presi- 
dent, and the correspondence between the Presi- 
dent and governor was conducted through the^ 
Department of State. The law of 1792 required 



20 

the Secretary of State to have the laws of the 
Territory printed and to provide seals for the offi- 
cers. As the Territorj'^ came to be subdivided into 
several separate governments the labors of the 
Department increased, but their nature did not 
materially change. 

The Department also maintained at one time a 
register of American seamen and incoming alien 
passengers. 

It had, when it was organized, the management 
of the mint, and one of the early acts of Secretary 
Jefferson was to send to the President two experi- 
mental coins made " by putting a silver plug worth 
three-fourths of a cent into a copper worth one- 
fourth of a cent." In fact, the department at the 
beginning was considered, as Jefferson said, to em- 
brace " the whole domestic administration (war 
and finance excepted)." 



CHAPTER IV. 

SOME DOMESTIC DUTIES. 



There are certain domestic functions of the De- 
partment which make it a Department of State. 
It is the medium for the publication of the laws of 
the United States. It is by the Secretary of State's 
proclamation that the adoption of amendments to 
the Constitution of the United States is made 
known. It promulgates the President's proclama- 
tions and orders and the treaties of the United 
States. Under the law it is the Secretary of State 
who is officially informed by the governors of the 
States of the votes cast for electors to decide who 
shall be the President and the Vice President of 
the United States, and the Secretary of State certi- 
fies these votes to the President of the Senate and 
the Speaker of the House of Representatives and 
publishes the governors' certificates in a newspaper 
in Washington. 

The law creating the Department of State pre- 
scribed that the Secretary should keep the seal of 

(21) 



**• 



22 

the United States, and he thus became the custo- 
dian of the most important official evidence of 
Federal Executive authority. The law reads that 
the Secretary of State — 

shall affix the said seal to all civil commissions to officers 
of the United States, to be appointed by the President by 
and with the advice and consent of the Senate, or by the 
President alone: Provided, That the said seal shall not be 
affixed to any commission before the same shall have been 
signed by the President of the United States, nor to any 
other instrument or act without the special warrant of the 
President therefor. 

The seal thus, as the Supreme Court has ex- 
pressed it, " attests, by an act supposed to be of 
public notoriety, the verity of the presidential sig- 
nature." 

The device of the seal was adopted by the Con- 
tinental Congress in 1782, and is as follows: 

The device for an armorial achievement and reverse of 
the great seal for the United States in Congress assembled, 
is as follows : 

ARMS.^Paleways of thirteen pieces, argent and gules; 
a chief, azure; the escutcheon on the breast of the Ameri- 
ca'n eagle displayed proper, holding in his dexter talon 
an olive branch, and in his sinister a bundle of thirteen 
arrows, all proper, and in his beak a scroll,, inscribed 
with this motto, " E pluribus Unum." 

For the Crest. Over the head of the Eagle, which ap- 
pears above the escutcheon, a glory, or, breaking through 



.23 

a cloud, proper, and surrounding thirteen stars, fornft^^a 
constellation, argent, on an azure field. 

Reverse. — A pyramid unfinished. 

In the zenith, an eye in a triangle, surrounded With a 
glory proper. Over the eye these words, "Annuit coeptis." 
On the base of the pyramid the numerical letters 
MDCCLXXVL And underneath the following motto, 
"Novus Ordo Seclornm." 

REMARKS AND EXPLANATION. 

The Escutcheon is composed of the chief and pale, the 
two most honourable ordinaries. The pieces, paly, repre- 
sent the several States all joined in one solid compact 
entire, supporting a Chief, which unites the whole and 
represents Congress. The Motto alludes to this union. 
The pales in the arms are kept closely united by the chief 
and the chief depends on that Union and the strength re- 
sulting from it for its support, to denote the Confederacy 
of the United States of America and the preservation of 
their Union through Congress. The colours of the pales 
are those used in the flag of the United States of America; 
White signifies purity and innocence; Red, hardiness and 
valour, and Blue, the colour of the chief signifies vigilance 
perseverance & justice. The Olive branch and arrows de- 
note the power of peace and war which is exclusively 
vested in Congress. The Constellation denotes a new State 
taking its place and rank among other sovereign powers. 
The Escutcheon is born on the breast of an American 
Eagle without any other supporters, to denote that the 
United States ought to rely on their own Virtue. 



•24 

Reverse. — The pyramid signifies Strength and Duration. 
Thp Eye over it and the motto allude to the many signal 
intlS'positions of providence in favour of the American 
causd. The date underneath is that of the Declaration of 
Independence and the words under it signify the begin- 
ning of the new American ^Era, which commences from 
that date. 

Passed June 20, 1782. 

The above is the official description of the coat 
of arms of the United States. When an American 
shield appears with the stripes alternately red 
(gules) and white (argent), instead of alternately 
white and red; when the stripes are more or less 
than thirteen; when there are stars in the top 
(chief) of the shield; when the eagle grasps in his 
left (sinister) talon more or less than thirteen 
arrows; when above the eagle's head there are 
more or less than thirteen stars — whenever any of 
these and other common errors appear, the i\meri- 
can arms are not correctly reproduced. 

The reverse of the seal has never been used 
officially. 

At the present time the seal of the United States 
is affixed to the commissions of all Cabinet officers 
and diplomatic and consular officers appointed by 
the President; to all ceremonial communications 
from the President to the heads of foreign Govern- 
ments; to all treaties, conventions, and formal 



25 

agreements of the President with foreign powers; 
to all exequaturs to foreign consular officers in the 
United States who are appointed by the heads of 
the Governments which they represent; to war- 
rants by the President to receive persons sur- 
rendered by foreign Governments under extradi- 
tion treaties; and to all miscellaneous commissions 
of civil officers appointed by the President, whose 
appointments are not now directed by law to be 
countersigned under a different seal. 

The law creating the Department ordered that 
all bills, orders, resolutions, etc., passed by Con- 
gress and approved by the President, or passed 
over his veto, should be sent to the Secretary of 
State, by whom they were to be printed and the 
originals recorded and preserved. They were 
printed, under varying regulations, in newspapers 
until 1874, but this did not interfere with their pub- 
lication also in pamphlet form. Since 1874 the 
publication of the laws has been wholly by the 
Secretary of State. In that year, also, the Revised 
Statutes of the United States was provided for. 

The Declaration of Independence and the Con- 
stitution of the United States, the fundamental 
laws of the United States, were in the custody of the 
Secretary of State for 133 years; but by an order 



26 

of President Harding, dated September 29, 1921, 
issued at the instance of Secretary Hughes, they 
were transferred to the custody of the Library of 
Congress, because the Library of Congress was in a 
fireproof building, and the' facilities for the ex- 
hibition of the documents were better there than 
they were in the State Department Building. 

A facsimile of the Declaration of Independence 
was made in 1824. On January 2 of that year 
was read in the House of Representatives a letter 
from John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, stat- 
ing that the facsimile had been made by his 
direction and 200 copies struck off. A joint reso- 
lution was passed providing for their distribution 
to various public institutions and to each of the sur- 
viving signers of the original. These were Thomas 
Jefferson, John Adams, and Charles Carroll of 
Carrollton. The engraver who made the copy was 
William J. Stone, of Washington. Facsimiles have 
been struck off since and are now quite common. 
They do not, however, closely resemble the docu- 
ment as it appears at the present day, as within 
the past 30 years the ink has faded and the names 
of many of the signers have become almost 
illegible. 



CHAPTER V. 

SOME FOREIGN DUTIES. 



Presidential warrants of extradition, as we have 
seen, bear the seal of the United States, and this 
brings us to one of the most important and inter- 
esting of the legal functions of the Department of 
State. Extradition, as Prof. John B. Moore de- 
fines it, is " the act by which one nation delivers 
up an individual accused or convicted of an of- 
fense outside of its own territory to another na- 
tion which demands him." In the earlier days of 
the Republic this function was not infrequently 
discharged by the governors of the individual 
States. But with the development and clearer 
comprehension of the powers of the National 
Government the States have ceased to deal with 
the subject, and it is now generally admitted to 
belong exclusively to the General Government. 
There is an exception to this rule in the case of 
Mexico. The United States has, by treaty with 
that Government, agreed that applications for ex- 

(27) 



28 

tradition may be made and granted by State gov- 
ernments for offenses committed in the frontier 
territory of this country and Mexico. This does 
not, however, preclude the exercise of supreme 
control in the matter by the National Government 
of either country. 

The first treaty of this country providing for 
mutual surrender of criminals was that of 1794 
with Great Britain. Murder and forgery were the 
only crimes included in it, and it expired in 12 
years. A new treaty was concluded with Great 
Britain in 1842, and since then treaties have been 
entered into with many powers, and the practice of 
extradition has become general. 

The most important routine duties of the De- 
partment of State are those connected with the 
Diplomatic and Consular Service. The Depart- 
ment of Foreign Affairs was formed with the chief 
purpose of taking under its charge these functions 
of government, and the methods of administration 
have not changed materially since the early days 
of the Republic. 

The rules and practices that govern our diplo- 
matic and consular corps are found in the various 
works on international law, and these cover even 
minute matters of form and routine; but there has 



, 29 

gradually grown up an American construction of 
international law. What this construction is may 
be found in the volumes known as Foreign Rela- 
tions, which have been regularly issued by the 
Government since 1870, and which were issued 
before that, from 1861 to 1868, under the title 
Diplomatic Correspondence. Previous to 1861 the 
foreign correspondence was printed in separate 
reports to Congress. In these volumes the instruc- 
tions of the Secretary of State to our ministers 
abroad, and their dispatches, and the notes ex- 
changed between the Secretary of State and foreign 
ministers accredited to this country are given in 
part. 

In 1877, utider the supervision of John L. Cad- 
walader. Assistant Secretary of State, the Depart- 
ment issued a small volume entitled " Digest of the 
Published Opinions of the Attorney General and of 
the Leading Decisions of the Federal Courts, with 
Reference to International Law, Treaties, and Kin- 
dred Subjects." This was followed in 1886 by the 
most important work on American international 
law that had been printed up to that time. It was 
entitled "A Digest of the International Law of the 
United States, taken from Documents issued by 
Presidents and Secretaries of State, and from De- 



30 • • 

cisions of Federal Courts and Opinions of Attor- 
neys General," and was published by the Govern- 
ment under congressional authority. The com- 
piler and editor was the eminent scholar and 
publicist, Francis Wharton, LL. D., who held the 
office of Solicitor of the Department of State while 
he prepared the work. 

In 1906, John Bassett Moore being the editor, 
appeared a new work on American International 
Law based upon Wharton's Digest. It was under- 
taken in accordance with an act of Congress, ap- 
proved February 20, 1897. It is in eight volumes, 
and is entitled "A Digest of International Law as 
Embodied in Diplomatic Discussions, Treaties, and 
Other International Agreements, International 
Awards, the Decisions of Municipal Courts and 
the Writings of Jurists, and Especially in Docu- 
ments, Published and Unpublished, Issued by 
Presidents and Secretaries of State of the United 
States, the Opinions of the Attorneys General, and 
the Decisions of Courts, Federal and State." 

The particular rules for the government of con- 
sular officers are found in the volume known as 
Consular Regulations, the first edition of which 
appeared in 1855, when William L. Marcy was 
Secretary of State, under the title General Instruc- 
tions to the Consuls and Commercial Agents of the 



31 

United States. This publication followed the act 
of March 1, 1855, remodeling the Consular and 
Diplomatic Service, In 1857 another edition was 
printed, entitled " Regulations Prescribed by the 
President for Consular Officers of the United 
States." The first volume, entitled " Consular Reg- 
ulations," was issued in 1874 under Secretary Ham- 
ilton Fish. There have been successive editions 
since then, the last appearing in 1896. A new edi- 
tion is now in preparation. 

The Department's relations to American diplo- 
matic and consular officers is similar to the rela- 
tions of the War Department to the Army, and of 
the Navy Department to the Navy. 

We now have diplomatic missions in 49 coun- 
tries. Some are under ambassadors; most of them 
are under envoys extraordinary and ministers 
plenipotentiary; two are under diplomatic agents 
and consuls general; and one is under a minister 
resident and consul general. At each of these mis- 
sions there are counselors or secretaries, or both; 
at some there are commercial, military, and naval 
attaches, and in China and Japan there are student 
interpreters. The duties of a diplomatic repre- 
sentative are many and varied. He must guard 
American rights and see that they are not infringed 

4986—22 4 



32 

upon; he must give information to foreigners con- 
cerning American institutions, laws, and customs; 
he is the medium through whom Americans meet 
foreigners for official or business reasons. Hi$ 
most important function is the presentation to the 
foreign government near which he is residing of 
the official views of this Government, and the con- 
veyance to this Government of official messages 
from the foreign government. He must keep his 
Government advised of the progress of events in 
the country where he lives. He is supposed to be 
always acting under the instructions of the State 
Department. 

A diplomat is the agent of his government to a 
foreign government, but a consul is his govern- 
ment's agent only in the district in which his con- 
sulate is situated. It is the special function of 
consuls to promote American commerce, and watch 
over commercial interests. But, besides this, they 
take charge of the estates of American citizens who 
die abroad without legal representatives; care for 
stranded American seamen; certify to the correct- 
ness of the values of merchandise exported to the 
United States; aid in the enforcement of the immi- 
gration laws; and give advice and protection to 
American citizens. Their duties are so varied and 
multifarious that it is impossible to describe them 



33 

briefly. The consular regulations which prescribe 
a consul's duties comprise upward of 3,000 para- 
graphs. There are about 300 principal consular 
officers, and altogether the service is composed, 
including vice consuls, clerks, interpreters, etc., of 
more than 1,600 men. Wherever there are Ameri- 
can interests in foreign countries, there are Ameri- 
can consular officers; that is to say, they may be 
found in all the four quarters of the globe. 

The granting of passports to American citizens 
for their protection in traveling abroad was a 
function which fell to the Government under the 
general provisions of international law as soon as 
there was competent authority for the purpose. 

The treaty of 1778 with France, which was the 
first made by the United States, provided for a 
form of passport to be given by the two Govern- 
ments to their respective vessels, but until 1856 
there was no law restricting the granting of pass- 
ports to Federal authority. 

In the absence of any statute, however, the issu- 
ing of passports to Americans going abroad fell 
to the Department of State, as one of its manifestly 
proper functions. Nevertheless, as they had 
doubtless been issued before the adoption of the 
Constitution by State or municipal authorities, 
they continued to be so issued without statutory 



34 

prohibition until the enactment of the law of 1856. 
This law provided that the Secretary of State be 
authorized to grant and issue passports, and cause 
them to be granted and verified in foreign coun- 
tries by. diplomatic and consular officers of the 
United States under such rules as the President 
might prescribe. No one else was to issue pass- 
ports, and they must be issued to none but citizens 
of the United States. Any person not authorized 
to do so who granted a passport should, upon con- 
viction of the offense, be deemed guilty of a mis- 
demeanor and fined and imprisoned. All returns 
of passports issued abroad were to be made to the 
Secretary of State. 

The act of July 1, 1863, was the first one estab- 
lishing a passport fee, which was fixed at $3. This 
was increased to $5 by act of June 20, 1864. The 
fee was abolished by act of July 14, 1870, restored 
by that of June 20, 1874, and reduced by act of 
March 23, 1888, to $1. It was increased to $9 by act 
of Congress approved June 4, 1920. For the year 
ending June 30, 1921, the receipts for passport fees 
were $1,184,000. 

During the World War it became necessary for 
all travelers to be provided with passports, and in 
order that officials might be assured of the validity 



35 

of the passports the vise system was resorted to; 
that is to say, it was required that each passport 
should be shown to a consul, who, after he had seen 
it and found it to be valid, indorsed upon it a 
statement to that effect. The system has been used 
not only to prevent the entrance into the United 
States of alien enemies but of anarchists and others 
opposed to the Government. Every alien before 
proceeding to the United States must go to the 
nearest American consul to have his passport 
viseed. After the armistice the United States was 
looked upon as a fertile field for the activities of 
revolutionists and fanatics who wished to create 
political and social unrest. In 1920 there was a 
wave of emigration toward this country, and it was 
the consuls' duty to eliminate undesirable persons* 
from the thousands of would-be immigrants. The 
passports of 657,968 aliens bound for the United 
States were viseed by our consuls during the fiscal 
year ended June 30, 1921, and the fees for this serv- 
ice, which went to the Treasury of the United 
States, amounted to more than $500,000. In per- 
forming their duties with reference to vises, the 
consuls discovered extensive frauds — the manu- 
facture and sale of fraudulent passports, presenta- 
tion of fraudulent passports at the ports of the 
United States, and false and fraudulent indorse- 



36 

ments and vises. Active steps were taken to 
break up these practices. To illustrate the volume 
of business relating to vises transacted, it may be 
noted that one consulate general had during the 
winter of 1920-21 approximately 10,000 applica- 
tions for vises each month; and when the office was 
opened in the morning three or four hundred per- 
sons would be found waiting to obtain their vises, 
notwithstanding the fact that the fee for each vise 
is $10. At another office, at certain times, there 
were as many as 8,000 persons waiting for vises. . 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE SUBDIVISIONS. 



To the obvious necessity of dividing the labors 
of the Department is due the formation of the 
divisions and bureaus. In a circular dated October 
31, 1834, John Forsyth, Secretary of State, pre- 
scribed the distribution of the duties in the Depart- 
ment. The chief clerk's duties, he said, were such 
as pertained to an undersecretary. He was to 
exercise an immediate superintendence over the 
several bureaus, and report to the Secretary all 
acts of personal negligence or misconduct. The 
Diplomatic Bureau was to have charge of all corre- 
spondence between the Department and our diplo- 
matic agents abroad and foreign diplomatic agents 
in the United States; was to prepare treaties, etc., 
and keep indexes of its correspondence, a function 
now performed by a separate bureau. Three 
clerks were in charge of the bureau. The Consular 
Bureau had charge, similarly, of all consular corre- 
spondence, the business also being performed by 

(37) 



38 

three clerks. The Home Bureau was divided into 
four divisions, one clerk being in charge of each. 
One division had control of the returns of passen- 
gers from foreign ports and registered seamen, 
miscellaneous and domestic correspondence, trea- 
ties and presents which were permitted to be ex- 
hibited. To another was given the custody of the 
seal of the United States and the seal of the Depart- 
ment, the applications for office, the commissions 
and appointments. A third had the presidential 
pardons, passports, and ail correspondence re- 
lating to them. The fourth had in charge the filing 
and preserving of copyrights and the reports to 
the President and Congress. The keeper of the 
archives had charge of all archives other than 
diplomatic and consular, of the laws and their dis- 
tribution, and of the publications of the Depart- 
ment. The translator and librarian performed all 
the translations and cared for the books, etc. 
The disbursing agent made all the purchases and 
disbursements, and was also superintendent of the 
building. All the business was confidential. The 
clerks were required to finally act upon and dis- 
pose of all matters sent to them on the day of their 
receipt. The hours of business were from 10 in the 
morning till 3 in the afternoon, during which time 



39 

no one was to be absent without special permission. 
The clerks in the Patent Office were under a sepa- 
rate arrangement. 

In 1842, when Daniel Webster was Secretary of 
State, was originated the " Statistical Office." He 
recommended, in a report to Congress, that the ar- 
rangement and condensation of information on 
commercial subjects received from our consuls 
abroad be intrusted to one person, who should also 
have charge of the correspondence. No action 
was taken on the subject by Congress until 1856, 
when the " Statistical Office of the Department of 
State " was authorized, under the charge of a 
" superintendent," with a salary of $2,000. In 
1874 the title was changed to "Bureau of Sta- 
tistics," with a chief receiving $2,400 a year, after- 
wards reduced to $2,100. Secretary Sherman, act- 
ing under authority of a law passed that year, 
changed the name by an order dated July 1, 1897, 
to the Bureau of Foreign Commerce. The bureau 
was transferred to the Department of Commerce 
and Labor February 14, 1903, and the Bureau of 
Trade Relations was established to edit the con- 
sular reports and formulate commercial instruc- 
tions to consuls. The bureau became the Office of 
Foreign Trade Advisers in 1914; then of Foreign 



40 

Trade Adviser in 1915; of Adviser on Commercial 
Treaties in 1916; again Foreign Trade Adviser in 
1917; and Economic Adviser by order of the Sec- 
retary of State dated December 20, 1921. 

In 1870 there was instituted the Bureau of In- 
dexes and Archives, to index all incoming and out- 
going mail which had before been indexed by the 
several bureaus, and to have charge of the ar- 
chives, diplomatic, consular, and domestic, thus 
taking the duties which had before belonged to the 
keeper of the archives. 

The financial business of the Department, pre- 
viously intrusted to one of the clerks, was put by 
the act of 1855 in the hands of a disbursing clerk, 
who was ordered to give bonds. A Bureau of Ac- 
counts, with the disbursing clerk as chief, was 
formed in 1873. 

The librarian and translator was paid, under the 
act of 1836, $1,600 a year. The two offices were 
subsequently separated, each being filled by a 
clerk. The separate bureau of rolls and library 
was created in 1874, the laws, treaties, and histori- 
cal papers being in its custody, as well as the 
books, periodicals, and maps. 

By an order of May 13, 1921, all of these duties, 
those of the editor of the laws, and all the publica- 



41 

tions of the Department were placed under the 
Division of Publications, with the editor of the 
Department as chief. 

The Diplomatic and Consular Bureaus continued 
practically as organized by Secretary Forsyth, but 
each bureau was for several years divided, there 
being a First Diplomatic Bureau and a Second 
Diplomatic Bureau, and a First Consular Bureau 
and a Second Consular Bureau, each having a 
separate chief. 

The passport business of the Department, which 
had been under Forsyth's arrangement a division 
of the Home Bureau, was afterwards separated 
and made a distinct bureau, with one of the clerks 
in charge of it. In 1894 it was placed under the 
Bureau of Accounts, but as a division with the 
passport clerk at its head. In 1902 it was made a 
separate bureau, and in 1907 the name was changed 
to the Bureau of Citizenship. The designation was 
again changed August 13, 1918, to Division of Pass- 
port Control. 

The applications for office, custody of the seal 
of the United States, preparation of commissions 
and appointments, also formerly a part of the 
duties of the Home Bureau, were put under the 
Bureau of Commissions and Pardons, and after the 



42 

pardons ceased to be made out in the Department 
this was simply the Bureau of Commissions. The 
name was subsequently changed to Bureau of Ap- 
pointments, with the appointment clerk in charge 
of it, by Secretary Olney. 

An important development of the machinery of 
the Department was t^ie formation of divisions hav- 
ing charge of the correspondence with diplomatic 
and consular officers in particular countries or 
groups of countries. There had always been some 
sort of division of the correspondence upon geo- 
graphic lines; but it was inadequate to the ex- 
panding needs of the service, having been put into 
effect when we were a small nation having limited 
intercourse with other Governments. So it was to 
meet what had become a necessity that certain 
political geographical divisions M^ere created in the 
Department. They deal with our political and 
commercial relations with different sections of 
the world. The Division of Far Eastern Affairs 
was the first established, in 1908. It has general 
supervision of our relations with China, Japan, 
Siam, the far eastern possessions of European 
States, and Siberia. In 1909 the Division of Latin 
American Affairs, with similar functions for Cen- 
tral and South America, was created; also in that 



43 

year the Division of Western European Affairs 
and Near Eastern Affairs; in 1915 the Division 
of Mexican Affairs; and in 1919 the Division of 
Russian Affairs. By this organization our corre- 
spondence with and concerning different groups 
of countries passes into the hands of officials as- 
signed for duty in the Department, who are in most 
cases diplomatic or consular officers of the United 
States and who have in all cases personal knowl- 
edge and experience of the affairs of the countries 
to which the correspondence pertains. 

Under the provisions of a law passed in 1909, 
the Secretary of State was permitted to organize 
his Department with reference to increase in for- 
eign trade and in other directions, and he then 
created a Division of Information, whose duty it 
was to circulate important correspondence among 
the diplomatic missions abroad, so that the entire 
diplomatic service might be conversant with such 
important matters as the department was consid- 
ering. This division also examined the foreign 
press and made extracts for the benefit of the offi- 
cers of the department itself." In 1917 (May 7) the 
division became the Division of Foreign Intelli- 
gence, and the preparation of information for the 
press was added to its other duties. By Depart- 



44 

ment order in 1920 (Feb. 6) the Division of Po- 
litical Information was created, and on May 24, 
1921, it became the Division of Political and Eco- 
nomic Information. On the latter date was created 
also the Division of Current Information, which 
took over the business of preparing items for the 
press which had formerly been with the Division 
of Foreign Intelligence. The organization of the 
Department at the present time, after the Secre- 
taries, Director of the Consular Service, Solicitor, 
and Chief Clerk, is: Division of Far Eastern 
Affairs, Division of Latin-American Affairs, Divi- 
sion of Western European Affairs, Division of 
Near Eastern Affairs, Division of Mexican Affairs, 
Division of Russian Affairs, Office of the Eco- 
nomic Adviser, Division of Passport Control, Visa 
Office, Division of Publications, Division of Po- 
litical and Economic Information, Division of 
Current Information, and five bureaus as follows : 
Diplomatic, Consular, Appointments, Indexes and 
Archives, and Accounts. The whole business of 
the Department is divided among these divisions 
and bureaus. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE DEPARTMENT'S HOMES. 



The meeting place of the Congress, where the 
plan for the conduct of our foreign affairs was first 
taken into consideration, was Carpenters' Hall, a 
building which had been constructed for the Society 
of House Carpenters, of Philadelphia. It stands 
at the end of an alley, south from Chestnut Street, 
between Third and Fourth Streets. The lower floor, 
consisting of one large room, was occupied by the 
Congress, and the rooms in the second story by 
committees. From Carpenters' Hall the Govern- 
ment went to what has ever since been known as 
Independence Hall. 

As soon as the Department of Foreign Affairs 
was organized under Livingston, it took possession 
of a small house in Philadelphia, owned by Peter 
L. Du Ponceau, No. 13 South Sixth Street, on the 
eastern side. Livingston's office was in the front 
room of the second floor, and in the back room 
were the undersecretaries, while the clerks and 

(45) 



46 

interpreters occupied the room on the ground floor. 
This building was demolished in 1846. It was occu- 
pied as the Office of Foreign Affairs from the latter 
part of 1781 up to June, 1783, when the Depart- 
ment was practically suspended until Jay took con- 
trol of it in 1785. 

In January, 1785, the seat of government being 
moved to New York, the Department of Foreign 
Affairs found quarters in the famous Fraunce's 
Tavern, in the long room of which Washington had 
taken farewell of the generals of the Revolution 
at the close of the war. Here it remained till 1788, 
when it moved to the west side of Broadway, in a 
house owned by Philip Livingston, near the Bat- 
tery. Later it was moved to another house on the 
same street on the opposite side. 

The capital having been again located at Phila- 
delhpia, the Department took up its abode first on 
Market Street, then on the southeast corner of Arch 
and Sixth Streets, then in North Alley, and finally 
at the northeast corner of Fifth and Chestnut 
Streets, where it remained until it was moved to 
Washington, except for an interval of three months, 
from August to November, 1798, when it occupied 
the State House at Trenton, N. J-, the office being 
moved from Philadelphia on account of an epi- 
demic of yellow fever. 



47 

On June 1, 1800, the archives were lodged in the 
Treasury, the only building sufficiently completed 
to receive them, and August 27 were placed in one 
of the " six buildings " on Pennsylvania Avenue 
near Twentieth Street. In May, 1801, the offices 
were placed in the large brick building on Seven- 
teenth Street opposite G Street, known as the War 
Office, and here they remained up to December, 
1819, with an interval from September, 1814, to 
April, 1816, when they occupied a building on the 
south side of G Street, near Eighteenth, pending 
the repair of the former building, which had been 
demolished in the invasion of the city by the British 
troops. 

In January, 1820, the offices were moved to the 
corner of Fifteenth Street and Pennsylvania Ave- 
nue, the site now covered by the north wing of 
the iJnited States Treasury, and there the depart- 
ment remained up to October, 1866, when it leased 
the premises then belonging, as now, to the Wash- 
ington Orphan Asylum, on Fourteenth Street near 
S Street. It remained there until July, 1875, when 
it was removed to the State, War, and Navy Build- 
ing, where it now is. 

When it first moved into this building it did not 
require for the transaction of business the whole 

4986 — 22 5 



48 

of the south wing, so the Navy Department occu- 
pied a part of the basement and the War Depart- 
ment the fourth floor and the attic. As the busi- 
ness of the Department grew, however, it had not 
sufiicien; room for all of its offices and was obliged 
to rent rooms in buildings near the main depart- 
ment for the overflow. At one time there were 
four offices located outside of the main building. 
To meet the necessities, in 1910 under on act of 
Congress the Government acquired a square of 
land bounded on the north by Pennsylvania Ave- 
nue, on the south by the Mall, on the east by Four- 
teenth Street, and on the west by Fifteenth Street. 
Here it was intended to erect a new building for 
the State Department and buildings for several 
other departments. In 1911 an award was made 
to an architect for plans for a new State Depart- 
ment building, but no steps have thus far been 
taken to build it. In the meantime the Navy De- 
partment and a portion of the War Department 
have moved from the State, War, and Navy Build- 
ing to other quarters, and the State Department 
has spread through the whole south wing and a 
considerable portion of the rest of the building.. 
All of the offices are now under one roof. The of- 
fice of the Secretary of State has remained in the- 



49 

same place where it was established in 1875, on 
the second floor in the middle of the south wing, 
overlooking the park known as the White Lot. In 
this office 18 Secretaries of State have conducted 
the foreign affairs of the United States, the first 
occupant being Hamilton Fish, and the present 
occupant Charles Evans Hughes. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

IN WAR. 

Since the Department was organized it has man- 
aged our foreign affairs through five wars — the 
War of 1812 with Great Britain; the Civil War of 
1861-65; the War with Spain in 1898; and the 
World War, of which we were a part from 1917 
to 1919, and which put a burden of additional work 
upon the Department from the time that it broke 
out in August, 1914. In each of these wars the 
regular organization of the Department has been 
greatly enlarged, and a number of vital temporary 
functions have been added to its normal duties. 
Only a few of these functions in the World War 
can be mentioned here. 

As soon as war was declared in Europe the State 
Department was asked by the several belligerent 
governments to take charge of their interests in 
those countries with which they were at war, and 
from which, in consequence, their representation 
had been withdrawn. The requests came from the 

(50) 



51 

Governments of Germany, Austria, Great Britain, 
France, Belgium, Japan, Russia, Italy, Bulgaria, 
Serbia, Turkey, and Rumania. American diplo- 
matic and consular officers^became in a sense the 
agents of these foreign governments. They were 
expected, for example, to look after the interests 
of Germany in England, and of England in Ger- 
many; to facilitate the departure of those civilians 
who were permitted to depart, to see that those who 
remained received humane treatment, and to give 
property interests such protection as they were en- 
titled to receive. Thus, a part of the American 
Embassy at London was the German section, com- 
prising a number of clerks who attended to the 
numerous requests for aid which came from Ger- 
mans and German interests in Great Britain. Simi- 
lar functions for the British were performed at 
the Embassy at Berlin, and the practice became 
general at American offices throughout the world. 
In some places the American representative was 
the representative also of five other nations. These 
duties continued until the United States ceased to 
be a neutral power. Included in the protection of 
foreign interests was the inspection of camps occu- 
pied by prisoners of war. This duty was particu- 
larly onerous in Russia, Germany, and England. 
As an example of its magnitude it may be stated 



52 

that by October, 1916, after the war had lasted a 
little over two years, our agents in Great Britain 
were visiting 105 separate prison camps where 
Germans and Austrians were confined, and in 
Germany our officers were visiting 148 camps of 
British prisoners. In behalf of the foreign govern- 
ments which they represented, our officers dis- 
bursed large sums of money. Up to October, 1916, 
about $2,000,000 had bcfcn placed to the credit 
of American diplomatic officers for the relief of 
enemy subjects who were unable to leave the 
enemy's country, Germany sent over -$100,000 per 
month to the American ambassador at London for 
the relief of German prisoners of war. 

When the war broke out in Europe the first duty 
of the Department and its agents was to protect 
American citizens who were traveling or sojourn- 
ing in those countries which had gone to war. 
There were many thousands of these citizens, some 
of them tourists taking a short European trip for 
pleasure and some of them people sojourning 
abroad for one purpose or another. The Depart- 
ment was flooded with inquiries concerning their 
welfare and whereabouts. Many of them had 
return tickets to the United States and very little 
money; but at first it w^s difficult and often impos- 
sible in Europe to obtain any money upon checks 



53 

or letters of credit. The first duty of the Depart- 
ment was, therefore, to make arrangements by 
which money could be advanced to Americans who 
wished to return home and then to arrange for 
their transportation. During the month of August 
upward of 60,000 inquiries concerning the where- 
abouts and welfare of individual Americans were 
cabled abroad by the Department at the request of 
their relatives and friends in the United States. 
Gold was sent over for their relief, ships were char- 
tered, and in about three months' time most Amer- 
icans who desired to leave Europe had had an 
opportunity to do so. 

Nevertheless, there were a great many Americans 
who left this country to go abroad for good rea- 
sons, and all of these were obliged to carry pass- 
ports. Thus the Division of Passport Control issued 
more passports in a single day than it had issued 
in normal times in a month. In this branch of 
the Department's business many frauds were dis- 
covered. Foreign spies were executed who were 
in possession of counterfeit American passports; 
there was false impersonation on the part of per- 
sons applying for passports, and much perjured 
evidence was presented to the Department. Crim- 
inal investigations and prosecutions occurred. It 



54 

was found to be necessary to make a new passport 
on a special safety paper. Strict requirements of 
proof of citizenship and careful scrutiny of appli- 
cations for passports were a necessary feature of 
the business. 

As long as the United States was a neutral power 
the preservation of neutrality and neutral rights 
required extraordinary vigilance. As an incident 
in managing this feature, a neutrality board was 
formed comprising the solicitor of the Department, 
an Army officer, Navy officer, and a specialist in 
international law. This board met regularly and 
considered cases concerning neutrality which the 
Secretary of State placed before it and reported 
its findings and recommendations. 

Of course, the great increase in the Department's 
duties required an increase in its staff, and it 
called into its service a number of persons who 
had special knowledge of the subjects which came 
before it. Some of these additional officers were 
former officials of the Department who volun- 
teered their aid in the crisis of the times. 

One office which had extraordinary pressure of 
important duties was that of the Foreign Trade 
Advisers, now the office of the Economic Adviser. 
It dealt with the complaints of persons engaged 



55 

in commerce whose shipments to foreign countries 
were seized, delayed, or sequestered, and whose 
importations to this country were obstructed, 
delayed, or sequestered. 

After the United States itself became a belliger- 
ent the Department gave its full assistance in the 
prosecution of the war, and at the same time prep- 
arations were made for the peace negotiations 
which would inevitably follow. For the purpose of 
obtaining data to be used in these negotiations, a 
large office force was established in New York, 
which worked under the general supervision of the 
Department. 

The expansion of the Department's duties dur- 
ing the war has not been abolished by peace. The 
passport business and the vise business have con- 
tinued to be almost as large as they were during 
hostilities, and the disordered conditions in most 
foreign countries require the continued vigilance 
of American diplomatic and consular officers to 
protect Americans and their interests. Many 
Americans have been attracted to European coun- 
tries by the prospects of opening new markets. 
Foreign trade must be readjusted; the markets 
have changed. The supervising official authority 
in assisting American commerce to meet the new 



56 

conditions is the American Diplomatic and Consu- 
lar Service, operating under the State Department. 
Whereas before the war the American flag was 
rarely seen in foreign waters, American ships being 
few, the American merchant marine is now large 
and our ships enter all the chief ports — always 
iinder the protection of the State Department's 
agents. Our whole outlook upon foreign relations 
has been forcibly expanded. Having served under 
arms with seven European nations, we are obliged 
to take notice of European affairs and to keep our- 
selves informed of their progress. The State De- 
partment is the center of this information. Events 
which before the World War we looked upon with 
detachment, we are now under the necessity of 
regarding as matters which affect us. Our inter- 
ests in the Far East are as vital as our interests in 
Europe, and our community of interest with Latin 
America always confronts us. The State Depart- 
ment which managed the foreign affairs of the 
United States 10 years ago could not effectively 
serve the country's foreign interests now. 



CHAPTER IX, 

IN PEACE. 



ro conduct the foreign affairs of the United 
States in times of war is a rare duty of the 
Department of State; to preserve friendly relations 
with all the world is its daily function. When 
differences arise between the United States and 
foreign governments they are settled usually by 
friendly, frank discussions carried on through the 
ordinary channels of diplomacy. If this method 
does not succeed, then formal conferences are held, 
and if these fail, then arbitration is invoked. War 
is the last resort. 

Arbitration is the application of law and of 
judicial methods to the determination of disputes 
between nations. " Its object is to displace war 
between nations as a means of obtaining national 
redress, by the judgments of international judicial 
tribunals, just as private war between individuals 
as a means of obtaining personal redress has, in 

(57) 



58 

consequence of the development of law and order 
in civilized States, been supplanted by the proc- 
esses of municipal courts." Such is the definition 
of aroitration given by John Bassett Moore in his 
Digest of International Law. (Vol. VII, p. 25.) 

From the commission formed in 1797 of British 
and American members for the purpose of arbi- 
trating the question of a part of the boundary line 
between the United States and Canada, up to 1899, 
when a permanent court of arbitration was pro- 
vided for by the international conference held at 
The Hague, the Government of the United States 
had resorted to arbitration to settle disputes with 
other countries more than forty times. In 1908 
and 1909, 25 treaties with foreign nations, provid- 
ing for the arbitration of difficulties which might 
arise, were signed, 22 of which were ratified 
and proclaimed as the law of the land. In 1914 
30 treaties were signed for the advancement of 
peace, 21 being ratified and proclaimed, and these 
treaties provide for joint commissions to make re- 
ports on differences, and in effect are arbitration 
treaties. 

To carry on negotiations for arbitrations and for 
treaties of friendship is one of the highest func- 
tions of the Department. 



59 

Of a kindred nature is the participation in those 
international conferences which take place at in- 
tervals between the delegates of foreign govern- 
ments and delegates of the United States. A nota- 
ble result of certain of these conferences is the Pan 
American Union, which, although it is not a part 
of the Department of State, is closely affiliated with 
it. In 1825 the President of the United States, John 
Quincy Adams, approved the project of holding a 
congress of independent American States to be held 
at Panama. One of the objects of the meeting, it 
was stated at the time, was to promote peace and 
union among the States of this hemisphere. The 
Panama Congress did not fulfill this hope; but it 
furnished a precedent for calling future interna- 
tional American conferences, and afterwards sev- 
eral were held. Finally, in 1889, the delegates of 
the countries of Central and South America and 
of the United States assembled in Washington with 
the Secretary of State as the presiding officer, to 
consider questions of mutual interest — among 
others the adoption of a definite plan of arbitra- 
tion of all questions, disputes, and differences be- 
tween the nations represented at the conference. 
This was known as the First International Ameri- 
can Conference. A second was held in 1902 at the 



60 

City of Mexico; a third at Rio de Janeiro in 1907; 
and a fourth at Buenos Aires in 1910. The first 
conference established the International Bureau of 
the American Republics at Washington. It was or- 
ganized in 1890, reorganized in 1907, and at the 
fourth conference the name was changed to the Pan 
American Union. The general control of this bu- 
reau is vested in a governing board of the diplo- 
matic representatives in Washington of all the 
Latin American governments and the Secretary of 
State, who is ex officio chairman of the board. 

Similar in purpose to the Pan American Con- 
ferences were the International Conferences held 
at The Hague in 1899 and 1907, in which delegates 
of the United States, acting under the instructions 
of the Secretary of State, took part. These meet- 
ings were commonly called " peace conferences," 
for their object was to advance the cause of inter- 
national peace. They drew up 13 international 
conventions and 3 international declarations. 
One avowed object of the first conference was to 
limit the armament of the various countries which 
had sent delegates to the conference, but to this 
part of the program several of the Governments 
represented were unwilling to agree. Both con- 
ferences, however, adopted conventions providing 



61 

for the pacific settlement of international disputes^ 
and for " a Judicial Arbitration Court." 

After the World War was terminated, so far as 
the United States was concerned, by law, as it had 
already ended in fact, the Secretary of State, un- 
der date of August 11, 1921, sent the invitation of 
the President to the Governments of Great Britain, 
France, Italy, and Japan to attend an International 
Conference on the Limitation of Armament, to 
which subject was added in the scope of the dis- 
cussions Pacific and far eastern problems. The 
invitation was extended also to China and then 
to Belgium, The Netherlands, and Portugal, in 
view of the interest of those powers in the Far 
East. The conference met at Washington Novem- 
ber 12, 1921, and was presided over from the open- 
ing to the close by the Secretary of State, and a 
number of the members of the American delega- 
tion were officers of the Department of State. The 
executive management of the conference was a, 
part of the department's duty. The conference 
lasted for three months, from November 12, 1921, 
to February 6, 1922. On February 9 the Secretary 
of State transmitted to the President the proceed- 
ings of the conference, including the six treaties 
to which it had agreed, and these were laid before, 
the Senate by the President on February 10. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE DEPARTMENT AND THE PEOPLE. 



What has been written here is an outline sketch 
of the Department considered by itself; but as an 
essential part of the executive machinery of the 
Government it cooperates with all of the other de- 
partments. To the Treasury Department it sends, 
for the Bureau of Public Health Service, informa- 
tion received from the consuls concerning the out- 
break in foreign countries of contagious diseases, 
so that measures may be taken to prevent their 
introduction into the United States, and for the 
Customs Service it sends information concerning 
importations, false valuations, and possible smug- 
gling. The War Department details Army officers 
as military attaches at certain foreign capitals ; they 
form a part of the American embassies or legations. 
At the present time the War Department is admin- 
istering the customs receipts of Santo Domingo and 
Haiti, and in this business it cooperates with the 
American ministers in those countries. With the 
Interior Department the cooperation of the State 

(62) 



63 

Department relates especially to patents in foreign 
countries and foreign patents in the United States 
which are governed by treaties negotiated by the 
diplomatic officers of the United States. To the 
Department of Agriculture the State Department 
constantly reports concerning foreign crops, soils, 
climates, and plant and animal diseases, the in- 
formation being received from American consular 
officers. The Solicitor of the Department of State, 
who is its chief law officer, is also an officer of the 
Department of Justice, and thus a close connec- 
tion is maintained between the two departments; 
also the State Department, when occasion requires 
it, calls upon the Director and Chief of the Bureau 
of Investigation of the Department of Justice for 
assistance in the detection and prosecution of 
crimes which may be attempted or committed 
against that part of the public business which is 
under the State Department's jurisdiction. With 
the Post Office Department the State Depart- 
ment's connection pertains not alone to the large 
volume of mail, domestic and foreign, which it 
sends and receives, but also to those postal treaties 
and conventions with foreign countries which are 
prepared by the Second Assistant Postmaster Gen- 
eral, but are printed with the cooperation of the 

4986 — 22 6 



64 

State Department. With the Navy Departmeni 
the State Department's relations are close, and 
there is a large exchange of information between 
them. American warships, when they enter for- 
eign ports, always put themselves in touch with 
American diplomatic and consular representa- 
tives, and the two departments cooperate in pro- 
tecting American interests. When ships are sent 
to protect American interests, they are sent at the 
request of the State Department. Occasionally, 
in case of emergency, an American diplomatic or 
consular officer may make a request directly of 
the commander of an American war ship to visit 
a port to afford protection. The Navy Depart- 
ment maintains Navy officers as attaches at cer- 
tain embassies and legations under conditions 
similar to those which prevail in the case of mili- 
tary attaches. At the present time the customs and 
financial affairs of Haiti and Santo Domingo are 
administered in part by Navy and Marine officers, 
who cooperate with our legations in those countries. 
The connection of the State Department with the 
Department of Commerce pertains especially to 
the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 
to which are sent the reports of the consuls on the 
subject of American trade and the opportunities 
for its extension in foreign countries. The prepara- 



65 

tion of such reports is one of the most important 
of a consul's duties. The reports themselves are 
published by the Department of Commerce in the 
Weekly Commerce Reports. The Department of 
Commerce maintains commercial attaches in for- 
eign countries who are included in the staffs of 
the embassies and legations and cooperate with the 
representatives of the Department in making re- 
ports on economic questions. In the Department 
OF Labor is the Bureau of Immigration, for which 
consular officers report concerning emigration from 
their respective districts. Also, in that Department 
is the Bureau of Naturalization, to which the De- 
partment of State reports such cases of fraudulent 
naturalization or of expatriation by naturalized 
citizens as come to its knowledge. 

Because it deals principally with foreign affairs — 
being, in fact, the department of foreign affairs — 
some people have the impression that the State 
Department's business is remote from the imme- 
diate interests of the people of the country; but 
this is an error, as a moment's reflection must 
reveal. Each year thousands of Americans go 
abroad for business reasons or for their education 
or health or pleasure. The State Department is 
required through its agents to extend them its pro- 
tection as long as they are in the lawful pursuit 



66 

of their affairs. It guards over them to see that 
no injustice or oppression befalls them. It assists 
American business men who are extending our 
trade and commerce by finding new markets for 
American products and by seeing that no obstacles 
are put in the way of American enterprise. Fi- 
nally, we must remember that upon the mainte- 
nance of peace and friendship with foreign coun- 
tries depends the safety and prosperity of all of us, 
and that it is the business of the State Department 
to maintain this peace and increase this friendship. 
As our foreign relations are of consequence to all, 
all should have an interest in the department which 
manages them. It acts in this respect for the 
President, and immediately under his direction. 
If there was formerly in our country a lack of gen- 
eral interest in foreign affairs, this apathy must 
have been removed by recent events. The World 
War has taught us that all countries are now so 
interlaced that a serious disturbance in one part 
of the world disturbs the tranquillity of every other 
part. We must realize how important it is to have 
the good will of the rest of the world, and we can 
obtain it only by giving to all the world our own 
good will. To act as the medium for interpreting 
this feeling is the highest function of the State 
Department. 



INDEX. 

Pag«. 
Accounts, Bureau of. (See Bureau of Accounts.) 

Adams, John VIII, IX, 6, 11, 26 

Adams, .John Quincy IX, 26, 59 

Adams, Philip VIII 

Adee, Alvey A VII, XII, XVI 

Adviser on Commercial Treaties 40' 

Agriculture, Department of, relations wdth 63 

Alden, Roger 16 

American Conference, First International 59* 

American Republics, Bureau of. (See Bureau of 
American Republics.) 

Anderson, Chandler P XIV 

Appleton, John XIV 

Applications for office 41 

Appointments, Bureau of. (See Bureau of Appoint- 
ments.) 

Arbitration 57 

Archives, Bureau of Indexes and. (See Bureau of 
Indexes and Archives.) 

Keeper of 38 

Arthur, Chester A XII 

Austrian interests 51 

Bacon, Robert XIII, XVI 

Baldwin, William Woodward XVII 

Bayard, Thomas F XII 

Bell, Edward VIII 

Belgian interests -- 51 

Black, Jeremiah S XI 

Blaine, James G XII 

(67) 



68 

Paee. 

Blaine, Walker XVI 

Bliss, Robert Woods VII, XVII 

Bollan, William 1 

Brent, Daniel IX 

British interests 51 

Bryan, William Jennings XIII 

Buchanan, James XI 

Bulgarian interests 51 

Bureau of Accounts ^ 40 

Bureau, Consular. {See Consular Bureau.) 
Bureau, Diplomatic. (See Diplomatic Bureau.) 

Bureau of the American Republics 60 

Bureau of Appointments 42 

Bureau of Citizenship 41 

Bureau of Commissions 42 

Bureau of Commissions and Pardons 41 

Bureau of Foreign Commerce 39 

Bureau of Statistics 39 

Bureau of Trade Relations 39 

Bureaus of Departments 37 

Burke, Edmund 1 

Cadwalader, John L XV, 29 

Calhoun, John C X 

Campbell, John A XVI 

Carmichael, William 6 

Carpenters' Hall 45 

Carr, Wilbur J VII 

Carroll, Charles, of Carollton 26 

Cass, Lewis XI 

Castle, William R., jr VII 

Census enumeration 18 

Chief clerk 12,37 

Citizenship, Bureau of. (See Bureau of Citizen- 
ship.) 

Clay, Henry IX 

Clayton, John M XI 



69 

Page. 

Cleveland, Grover XII 

Coat of arms of the United States. {See Seal of 
the United States.) 

Colby, Bainbridge XIII 

Commerce, Department of, relations with 64 

Commissions and Pardons, Bureau of. (See Bu- 
reau of Commissions and Pardons.) 
Commissions, Bureau of. (See Bureau of Commis- 
sions.) 

Committee of Foreign Affairs 2 

Committee of Secret Correspondence 2 

Conrad, Charles M . XI 

Consular Bureau 37,41 

Consular Regulations 30 

Consular Service 28,33 

Constitution of the United States: 

Amendments 21 

Original ._ 25 

Continental Congress 1 

Copyright 18 

Cridler, Thomas Wilbur XVII 

Dana, Francis 6 

Davis, Ben G VII 

Davis, John XV 

Davis, J. C. Bancroft XIV, XV 

Davis, Norman H XIV 

Day, William R XII, XV 

Dearing, Fred Morris XVI 

Declaration of Independence 25 

Department, Navy. (See Navy Department.) 
Department of Agriculture. (See Agriculture, De- 
partment of.) 
Department of Commerce. (See Commerce, De- 
partment of.) 

Department of Foreign Affairs 4,11 



TO 

Pag«. 

Department of Interior. (See Interior, Department 

of.) 
Department of Justice. {See Justice, Department 

of.) 
Department of Labor. (See Labor, Department of.) 
Department of State. (See State, Department of.) 
Department, Post Office. (See Post OiTice Depart- 
ment.) 
Department, Treasury. (See Treasury Department.) 
Department, War. (See War Department.) 

Derrick, William S ' X 

Dickinson, John 2 

Digest of International Law 29,30 

Digest of Opinions 29 

Diplomatic Bureau 37, 41 

Diplomatic Service 28, 32 

Disbursing agent 38 

Divisions of department 37 

Division of Far Eastern Affairs '. 42 

Division of Latin American Affairs 42 

Division of Mexican Affairs 43 

Division of Near Eastern Affairs 43 

Division of Passport Control 41,53 

Division of Political Information 44 

Division of Publications 40 

Division of Russian Affairs 43 

Doughton, J. Preston VIII 

Dulles, Allen W VII 

Dumas, Charles W. F 6 

Du Ponceau, Peter L._- 6, 45 

Economic adviser 40 

Editor of department 41 

Editor of the laws 40 

Evarts, William M XI 

Everett, Edward XI 



ri 

Page. 

Extradition 27 

Far Eastern Affairs, Division of, (See Division of 

Far Eastern Affairs.) 

Fillmore, Millard XI 

Fish, Hamilton . XI, 49 

Fletcher, Henry P XIV 

Foreign Affairs, committee of. (See Committee of 

Foreign Affairs.) 
Foreign Affairs, Department of. (See Department 

of Foreign Affairs.) 
Foreign Commerce, Bureau of. (See Bureau of 

Foreign Commerce.) 

Foreign Relations, volumes 29 

Foreign trade advisers 39,40 

Forsyth, John X, 37 

Foster, John W XII 

Franklin, Benjamin 1,2 

Franklin, William Temple 6 

Fraunces Tavern XH 

Freylinghuysen, Frederick T XII 

French interests 51 

Garfield, James A XII 

Garth, Charles 1 

Geographical divisions 42 

German interests 51 

Gerry, Elbridge 7 

Gilbert, Prentiss B VIII 

Graham, John IX 

Grant, Ulysses S XI 

Gresham, Walter Q XII 

Grinnell, William M XVI 

Hale, Chandler XVII 

Hale, Charles XIV 

Hamilton, James A X 

Hanna, Matthew E VII 

Harding, Warren G XIII 



72 

Page. 

Harrison, Benjamin, of Virginia XII 

Harrison, Benjamin, President 2 

Harrison, Leland VII, XVI 

Harrison, William H X 

Hay, John XIII, XV 

Hayes, Rutherford B XI 

Hay ward, Thomas, jr 3 

Hengstler, Herbert C VIII 

Hill, David J XV 

Ilitt, Robert R - XV 

Home Bureau 38 

Hoyt, Henry M --_ XIII 

Hughes, Charles Evans VII, XIII, 49 

Hunt, Gaillard VIII 

Hunter, William, jr XI, XIV, XVI 

Interests of foreign countries. (See under name of 

country.) 

Italian interests 51 

International conferences 59 

Interior Department, relations with 62 

Jackson, Andrew X 

Jay, .Tohn 2,6,7,9,12,14 

Japanese interests 51 

.Tefferson, Thomas 6. VIII, IX, 14, 20, 26 

Johnson, Andrew XI 

Johnson, Thomas --._ 2 

Justice, Department of, relations with 63 

Knox, Philander C XIII 

Labor, Department of, relations with 65 

Lansing, Robert XIII, XIV 

Latin American Affairs, Division of. {See Division 

of Latin American Affairs.) 

Laurens, Henry 6 

Laws of the United States 25 

Lee, Arthur 1,2,3 

Lee, Charles VIII 



73 

Pag*. 

Legare, Hugh S . X 

Librarian 38, 40 

Life, Thomas 1 

Limitation of Armament Conference 61 

Lincoln, Abraham XI 

Lincoln, Levi IX 

Livingston, Edward X 

Livingston, Robert R 4,9,45 

Loomis, Francis B XIII, XV 

Long, Breckinridge XVII 

Lovell, James 3 

McLane, Louis X 

Madison, James IX 

Malone, Dudley Field XVII 

Mann, Ambrose Dudley XIV 

Marcy, William L XI, 30 

Marshall, John IX 

Martin, J. L X 

McKinlcy, William XII, XIII 

MacMurray, John Van A VII 

McNeir, William VIII 

Merle-Smith, Van Santvoord XVII 

Mexican Affairs, Division of. (See Division of 

Mexican Affairs.) 

Mexico, treaty 27 

Mint, affairs 20 

Monroe, James IX 

Moore, John Bassett XIV, XV, XVI 

Moore's digest 30 

Morris, Lewis R 6 

Morris, Robert 3 

Navy Department, relations with 64 

Near Eastern Affairs, Division of, {See Division of 

Near Eastern Affairs.) 

Nelson, John X 

Neutrality board 54 



74 

Page^ 

Nielsen, Fred K VII 

O'Laughlin, John Callan XVI 

Olney, Richard XII, 42 

Osborne, John E XVI 

Paine, Thomas 3 

Pan American Union 59 

Panama Congress 59 

Passport Bureau — 41 

Passport Control, Division of. (See Division of 
Passport Control.) 

Passport frauds 53 

Passports 33 

Patent business 17 

Payson, Charles XVI 

Peace conferences 60 

Peirce, Herbert H. D XVII 

Phillips, William VII, XIV, XVI, XVII 

Pickering, Timothy VIII 

Pierce, Franklin _^ XI 

Political Information, Division of 44 

Polk, Frank Lyon XIII, XIV 

Polk, James K i XI 

Poole, De Witt C VII 

Porter, James D XV 

Post Office Department, relations with 63 

President, vote for 21 

Protection of American travelers 52 

Quincy, Josiah XV 

Randolph, Edmund VIII 

Register of seamen 20 

Remsen, Henry, jr 6,16 

Rives, George L XV 

Rockhill, William Woodville XV, XVII 

Roosevelt, Theodore XIII 

Root, Elihu XIII 

Rumanian interests 51 



<0 

Page. 

Bush, Richard IX 

Russian Affairs, Division of. {See Division of Rus- 
sian Affairs.) 

Russian interests 51 

Salmon, David A VIII 

Seal of the United States 22 

Secret Correspondence, Committee of. (See Com- 
mittee of Secret Correspondence.) 

Sedgwick, Theodore 13 

Serbian interests 51 

Seward, Frederick W XIV, XV 

Seward, William H XI 

Shand, Miles M VIII 

Sherman, John XII 

Smith, Robert IX 

State, Department of 13 

Reorganization 43 

Ruildings 45 

Expansion 55 

Statistical Office 39 

Statistics, Rureau of. (See Bureau of Statistics.) 

Stewart, Worthington E VIII 

Stone, Walter 6 

Stern, William J 26 

Strobel, Edward F XVIII 

Taft, William H XIII 

Taylor, Zachary XI 

Territories, affairs of 19 

Tetend, John P 6 

The Hague, conferences at 60 

Thomson, Charles 16 

Thomas, John A XIV 

Translator 38,40 

Treasury Department, relations with 62 

Trescot, William H XIV 

Turkish interests 51 



76 

Uhl, Edwin F XII.XV 

Upshur, Abel P X 

Van Buren, Martin X 

Vice President, vote for 21 

Vise service 35 

War Department, relations with 62 

Washburne, Elihu B XI 

Washington, George VIII, 11 

Webster, Daniel X, XI, 39 

Wentworth, Paul 1 

Wharton, Francis 4, 29 

Wharton's Digest 29 

Wharton, William F XII, XV 

White, Francis VII 

Wilson, Huntington XVI, XVII 

Wilson, Woodrow XIII 

o 



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